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This issue of Early Report focuses on parenting education in
recognition of its importance as part of any work with young
children and their families. The following broad definition of
parent education may be helpful to keep in mind as it is
addressed in the following articles:
Parent education refers to organized, planned efforts designed
to enhance understanding of and performance in the parental
role.*
The examples of parent education in Minnesota described in
this issue reflect some of the breadth of this definition.
The lead article and two research articles address the
increasing complexity of the field as it evolves and the daily
challenges families face increase. Hearing from parents involved
is an important part of parent education. The article describing
the experiences of two Minnesota parents highlights important
current work they are doing on behalf of all parents and
children.
Betty Cooke, Guest Editor
Minnesota Department of Education
Early Childhood and Family Programs Specialist
*From Profile of Parent Education, Cooke & Thomas,
University of Minnesota, 1985.
Why Is Parenting
Education Important?
by Erna Fishhaut
To answer this question, I talked to Martha Farrell Erickson.
As a researcher, Marti has studied parent-child attachment for
more than a dozen years. She combines concepts based upon
research evidence with ideas that have developed from her work
with mothers and their children. Her ideas provide the basis for
this discussion of parenting education.
Why Do We Hear About Attachment
Whenever We Mention Parenting?
Marti suggests that the relationship between parents and their
infants and toddlers is important because it builds the
foundations for the child's "disposition to obey." She
is quick to remind us that the parent or caregiver who is
sensitive and consistent in responding to an infant's cues and
signals helps to establish a secure attachment relationship to
the baby. The child who develops within this kind of relationship
can explore the world around her and, when faced with stress, can
seek and accept help from the parent. Knowing that the person
will be there is the reassurance that is needed. Such a good
start can strongly influence the way the child relates not only
to the parent but to others now and later.
Attachment is very important. Marti says: "The first
thing a kid needs to know is that there is someone who 'adores'
him. Remember, two attachments are better than one, and three are
better than two. In the early years ... that good relationship is
the child's whole world."
How Much Difference Is There Among The
Various Cultures In Terms of Child Rearing?
Differences in parenting practices occur more often between
economic levels than cultural groups. Also, people having similar
educational levels will more likely demonstrate common parenting
practices than those with the same cultural background. For
example, an authoritarian style of child rearing is likely to be
more related to socioeconomic level or educational level than to
culture.
When parents of all cultural groups were asked, "How do
you hope people will describe your child when he is ten years
old?" the answers of poor parents were more similar than
different.
What Are the Important Concepts for
Parenting Education?
We, as a society, must realize that there needs to be some
change in our values. We must place more value on parenting and
on caring for children.
We can look at parenting education in a number of ways. At the
global level, we, as a society, must realize that there needs to
be some change in our values. We must place more value on
parenting and on caring for children.
At the community level, we must provide general parenting
education to all parents (like Minnesota's ECFE programs).
At the individual level, we must target parenting education to
those families who have special needs such as a child with a
disability, a history of substance abuse, or a background that
includes child abuse.
About the Curriculum
Central themes in parenting education that are often missed
when curriculum goals are set include:
Theme 1
Parent learning to take the perspective of the child ...
see through the eyes of the child (e.g., staff person can write a
letter to the parents from the baby saying what the baby must be
thinking).
Theme 2
Parent linking with the past ... what did your parents
do? How would you change? What do you want to do the same?
Confront psychological barriers.
Theme 3
Parent self-awareness ... how do you function? What are
your strengths? What are your needs as a parent?
Along with classes, many strategies can be used to communicate
these themes such as television and other media as well as new
communication technologies such as interactive television and
computer-assisted learning.
About the Education Process
Parenting education should focus on:
Teaching young students about what family life means by
concentrating on the components of good relationships. This can
be integrated into science, social science, and English classes,
not just reserved for home economics.
Reaching parents who are not using resources (e.g., targeting
populations such as drug users).
Parent educators:
Function more effectively when they are "fellow
travelers" with parents rather than teachers.
Need support, care, and a "nurturing environment."
Time, permission, and facilitation are needed to work through
staff feelings about their work-on work time.
The following list of key factors that "really matter for
parents and their young children" can be the focus of parent
education programming regardless of how it is delivered:
Realistic attitudes and expectations about child rearing
Knowledge of child development and understanding of the
developmental meaning of certain key behaviors Secure
parent-child attachment
Sensitivity to the child's cues and signals Social support for
parents
Healthy resolution of parent's own childhood issues
Research Related to
Parenting Education:
Levels of Family
Involvement for Parent and Family Educators
by William J. Doherty,
Ph.D.
Change in parent perspectives and behaviors is a major goal in
parent and family education programs. In order for change to
occur, parent and family educators need to engage the personal
feelings and experiences of parents. But if the educational
experience is too intensive, parents feel exposed and the parent
educator feels overwhelmed. The following model addresses this
thorny issue: how to achieve enough depth in work with parents
without verging into therapy.
The model contains five levels of involvement, with the first
level (Minimal Emphasis on Families) and the fifth level (Family
Therapy) being outside the purview of parent and family
education. Level Two, Information and Advice, refers to primarily
didactic parent and family education in which the educator
actively involves parents but does not engage them at an
emotional level. Level Three, Feelings and Support, includes
level Two's information but goes on to elicit expressions of
feelings and concerns. The parent educator serves as an empathic
listener who normalizes parents' personal reactions when
appropriate and engages in collaborative problem solving
discussions. This level, in which there is movement back and
forth between information and effect, represents the ideal level
of involvement for most contexts of parent and family education.
Level Four, Systematic Assessment and Planned intervention, is
the most intensive level for parent and family education. It is
an option for work with high-risk parents when the parent
educator has received training in family assessment and basic
family interventions. Level Four involves an effort to change
some aspect of the larger family system of the parent, such as a
co-parental relationship or a relationship with grandparent. The
intervention is brief and focused on the parenting issue, and, if
the problem persists, the parent educator either makes a referral
for therapy or turns to Level-Three empathic listening. Settings
at practice at Level Four require the ongoing consultation of a
Level-Five family therapist.
Reflective Dialogue:
Parent Education for Conceptual Change
by Ruth Thomas, Ph.D.
The newly developed reflective dialogue approach to parent
education seeks learning beyond information and skill acquisition
and aims at understanding perspectives of parents as origins of
parental actions and as a basis for self-directed conceptual
change. Conceptual change refers to change in conceptual
organization as reflected in parental perspectives. Parental
perspectives are systems of beliefs, assumptions, meanings, and
orientations held by parents regarding their parenting role,
their children, and their parent-child relationship.
A reflective dialogue educational approach was developed and
tested over eight-to-ten weeks in five parent education programs
involving mothers and fathers, adolescent parents, parents in
suburban communities, and parents referred to educational
programs by medical and social service agencies. Videotaped
parent-child interaction cases were used to stimulate parents'
thinking about implications of various parenting practices and
ideas, including their own. Through facilitation by the parent
educator, parents engaged in in-depth discussion of alternative
views on parenting in relation to underlying assumptions and
implications for parental policies and practices, the
parent-child relationship, and children's development.
Pre- and post-interviews that focused on parents' views
regarding their child, parent-child relationships, and parenting
were conducted with 31 parents. In addition, observations of
parent-child interaction were conducted and analyzed on eight
dimensions established in previous research as supportive to
children's development. Analyses were conducted to determine
parental perspectives reflected in the interviews and
relationships between parental perspectives and qualities
reflected in parent-child interaction.
Data indicated that parental perspectives were related to what
parents actually did in interactions with their children and that
significant change in parental perspectives toward greater
sensitivity to and reciprocity with their children occurred over
the period in which parents experienced the reflective dialogue
approach. Findings suggest the significance of parental
perspectives in what parents actually do in interactions with
their children, that educational experiences can lead to shifts
in these deep-lying dimensions of parental cognition, and that
further research on the reflective dialogue approach that would
establish conclusive findings is warranted.
Sampler of Parent Education in Minnesota by Grace Huang,
Graduate Assistant, Home Economics Education
Minnesota has long been a national leader in the field of
parent and family education. In Minnesota, parent education is:
A very diverse phenomenon, especially in the range of services
provided and the range of personnel who provide the services,
Often embedded in the work of other major professions, and
Characterized by networking across programs and
organizations.*
These characteristics continue to hold true as evidenced by
the following examples of Minnesota's initiatives in parent
education.
*From Profile of Parent Education, Cooke & Thomas,
University of Minnesota, 1985.
Early Childhood Family
Education (ECFE)
Twenty years ago Minnesota was a pioneer in the development
and implementation of family support and education programs in
the Minnesota public schools. The 1974 state legislature
authorized the funding of six Early Childhood Family Education
(ECFE) pilot sites in local school districts under the auspices
of the Minnesota Department of Education. After ten years of
relatively slow growth, further legislation established an
innovative funding mechanism combining state aid with a property
tax-based levy. This allowed for rapid expansion of the
initiative from 34 sites in 1984 to where it is now offered in
380 school districts and the four tribal schools in Minnesota.
These districts encompass more than 99.6% of the 0-4 population
in the state. ECFE involves more young children and their
families than any other publicly sponsored early childhood
program or service in Minnesota and is the oldest and largest
family education and support program in the country. Funding for
ECFE has grown from $230,000 in the first year of the pilot to
over $31 million for fiscal year 1994.
ECFE is a voluntary public school program for all Minnesota
families with children between the ages of birth and
kindergarten. Over 245,000 children and parents participated in
ECFE during the 1992-93 school year. The mission of ECFE is to
strengthen families and support the ability of parents to provide
the 4 best possible environment for the healthy growth and
development of their children.
ECFE programs meet the needs of families in their communities
in a variety of ways. Most programs include the following:
Parent discussion groups
Play and learning activities for children Parent-child
interaction activities
Special events for the entire family
Home visits
Early screening for children's health and developmental problems
Information on other community resources for families and young
children
Libraries of books, toys, and other learning materials
Various types and intensities of services are offered.
Families select those most appropriate for them.
For more information contact: Early Childhood Family
Education, Minnesota Department of Education, 992 Capitol Square
Building, 550 Cedar St., St. Paul, MN 55101, (612) 296-6130.
MELD
MELD is a program to strengthen families at the critical
period of transition to parenthood. MELD brings together groups
of parents who have similar parenting needs, provides them with
pertinent information, and helps them to develop into supportive
peer groups.
The program's reliance on peer self-help makes it responsive
to different communities and populations, assuring the program is
both multicultural and culturally specific. The program uses
carefully selected peer volunteer group facilitators who receive
extensive training in group process and facilitation skills so
they are prepared to provide long-term support to parents. MELD
offers parents and group facilitators comprehensive curriculum
materials, providing relevant information about child
development, child guidance, health, nutrition, family
management, and parents' development.
The core of MELD's services is located in the Twin Cities.
MELD programs have been adapted to serve teenage mothers of
children aged birth to five; young single mothers of children
aged birth to five; young fathers; Hmong parents of preschool,
school-aged, and adolescent children; parents who are deaf;
parents of children aged birth to three with handicapping
conditions; Latino parents; and first-time adult parents.
For more information contact: MELD, 1123 North 3rd St.,
Minneapolis, MN 55401, (612) 332-7563.
Minneapolis Way to Grow
Minneapolis Way to Grow organizes community- centered programs
to help parents meet the needs of their young children. Way to
Grow's main goals are to help families make better use of
services in their community; help families build support networks
of friends, relatives, and neighbors; identify barriers that may
hinder school readiness at an early age; identify and offer
support to services for families and children; and raise public
awareness about the importance of both healthy child development
and practices that promote healthy development.
Way to Grow sites operate in six Minneapolis neighborhoods.
All community residents, pregnant women, and families with
children up to age six are invited to participate in the program.
Each center is staffed with four to seven community home
visitors. Home visitors are the heart of Way to Grow's outreach
effort. They go door-to-door to talk with people and find out
what is happening in the community. They help families access
community services and build support networks in their own
neighborhoods. Home visitors are very effective at reaching
people who traditional social service agencies have not been able
to help as well as families who have not been involved in social
services.
The format of home visiting activity varies. Based on the
needs of the families, the visitors might have individual contact
with the families, help them find the existing resources needed,
or form a small parenting group to discuss issues of concern.
For more information contact: Minneapolis Way to Grow, 1220
7th Ave. N, Minneapolis, MN 55411, (612) 377-1012.
Minnesota Indian Women's
Resource Center (MIWRC)
The program at Minnesota Indian Women's Resource Center
(MIWRC) is unique and specific to Indian families. By drawing
upon the resources of the culture and what was and is still
valuable, MIWRC tries to blend the information needed today with
the values of ancestors.
MIWRC offers parent education programs from three to six
months in length depending on the needs of families. These
consist of three components: talking circle, parenting group, and
living skills. In the talking circle, people share concerns and
feelings. The parenting group uses the "Cherish the
Children" curriculum which takes a Native-American
perspective towards parenting. In the living skills component,
speakers are invited from the community to talk about specific
topics. The three components are scheduled three different days
each week. All participants attend these three sessions every
week.
For more information contact: Minnesota Indian Women's
Resource Center, 2300 15th Ave. S, Minneapolis, MN 55404, (612)
728-2000.
Parents Anonymous of
Minnesota (PA)
Founded in 1970, Parents Anonymous (PA) is the largest child
abuse prevention, education, and treatment program in the world.
PA is a nonprofit organization dedicated to ending the
generation-to- generation cycle of child abuse and neglect
through parent-focused self-help prevention, intervention, and
treatment programs; supportive programs for their children; and
public education and professional training.
Parents Anonymous of Minnesota is a leader among Parents
Anonymous organizations nationwide. It was the first state to use
a community empowerment model for creating and maintaining local
PA chapters. Parents Anonymous of Minnesota offers free weekly
support groups to parents who are at risk of damaging the
relationships they have with their children. Support groups are
led by a volunteer professional who facilitates group interaction
and growth, models positive parenting behavior, and encourages
self- reporting or reports suspected child abuse to proper
authorities. The focus of the group is to prevent abuse from
occurring by offering a support system where parents can share
the joys and challenges of their parenting experiences.
PA also offers a children's support group for children ages
6-12 and child care for children 0-5. They meet concurrently with
the parent support groups. Children's support groups, led by
qualified volunteers, help children to develop self-esteem, learn
problem solving and non-violent conflict resolution skills, while
establishing trust and positive relationships with their parents.
All these services are offered free of charge to the community.
For more information contact: Parents Anonymous of Minnesota,
1061 Rice St., St. Paul, MN 55117, (612) 487-2111.
PACER Center
(Parent Advocacy Coalition for Educational Rights)
PACER Center is a statewide, nonprofit organization that
serves families of children and young adults with disabilities.
PACER is a coalition of organizations founded on the concept of
parents helping parents. PACER strives to improve and expand
opportunities that enhance the quality of life for children and
young adults with disabilities and their families.
Staffed primarily by parents of youth with disabilities, PACER
carries the philosophy of parents helping parents through
workshops, individual assistance, and written information.
Throughout Minnesota, PACER's services reach families of children
and young adults with all disabilities ... physical, mental,
learning, and emotional. Specific programs available include the
following:
Parents Helping Parents Program provides services to families
of children and young adults with disabilities. Topics include
special education procedures, communication skills, transition
from school to work and community, and other topical issues.
Early Childhood Project focuses on early intervention services
and support to families of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers
with special needs.
Surrogate Parent Services provides services for persons who
wish to serve as surrogate parents and represent children with
disabilities in the special education process.
Project for Parents of Children with Emotional/ Behavior
Disorders (EBD) provides services to parents of children and
adolescents with EBD. The project has helped set up parent
support group networks throughout Minnesota.
Multicultural Project assists African-American, Southeast
Asian, and other underrepresented parents who have children with
disabilities. Bilingual publications and workshops are available.
Grandparents Program enables grandparents of children with
special needs to better understand disabilities and their own
feelings and to support their child and grandchild.
For more information contact: PACER Center, 4826 Chicago Ave.
S, Minneapolis, MN 55417-1098, (612) 827-2966.
Parenting: The Great
Equalizer
by Fran Hesch and Roxy
Foster
Two different families, two different sets of circumstances,
one program that saved their lives!
In 1984 Fran and her husband Herb were given a gift for which
they were quite unprepared. A gift which came with no
instructions, no customer service hot-line, and no extended
maintenance agreement. They named their gift Sara Grace.
In the spring of 1985, across town, another couple, Roxy and
Jim, gave birth to a bouncing baby boy. Both sets of parents past
30 were well prepared for this wonderful new facet of life, or so
they thought!
Fran was able to take three months leave from work to become
adept at her new role as mother. She recalls, "Parenting
does not come naturally. I found myself isolated, lonely, and
feeling very out of my element. With no family in town, no
friends who had young children, and a husband who traveled quite
often, I found it very comforting to 'escape' back to work where
I felt in control of something."
Roxy made the decision not to go back to work after her son
was born. To stay home and be a full-time MOM was something she
truly wanted. Many challenges lay ahead ... breast-feeding didn't
come naturally, especially with a baby who was jaundiced and
lethargic. The baby blues were extended with the death of Jim's
dad four days after their son was born. In addition, major
depression set in as Roxy started having memories of childhood
sexual abuse.
Fran tells how the answer came in the mail. "The catalyst
of change in my life was a flyer explaining the Early Childhood
Family Education (ECFE) program. There were written materials,
parent support, and opportunities to volunteer where my children
were welcome to accompany me." Roxy reports: "Through
ECFE, I was able to reparent myself and acquire the skills to
become an active partner in my children's lives."
The stories of these two families are not isolated cases. Many
stories are shared throughout Minnesota in parenting classes in
ECFE and other parent education programs (see "Sampler of
Parent Education" programs). Roxy and Fran's lives crossed
paths in 1993 when both parents were looking for something to
fill the void being created as their children went off to
elementary school. They were no longer eligible for ECFE and
could find no support network to compare. These two women are
working to create a National Parenting Association (NPA).
The NPA has recently been founded by Sylvia Ann Hewleft,
economist and author of When the Bough Breaks: The Cost of
Neglecting Our Children. N PA's mission is to create a
family-friendly America. Fran and Roxy believe that with a united
voice for parents, we can turn this society into one that
cherishes its children. Roxy is state coordinator of the National
Parenting Association of Minnesota.
For more information about the National Parenting Association,
call (612) 884-7604 or (800) 709-8795. To join send $5 to NPA, PO
Box 20280, Bloomington, MN 55420.
Examples of Courses
Pertaining to Parenting Issues at the University of Minnesota
Child Psychology
CPsy 5334: Children, Youth in Society
CPsy 5336: Development and Interpersonal Relations
Educational Psychology
EPsy 5608: Parent and Professional Planning for Handicapped
Students
EPsy 5609: Family - Professional Planning for Persons with Severe
Handicaps
Family Social Science
FSOS 5200: Family Systems
FSOS 5205: Introduction to Family Research Methods
Home Economics Education
HEEd 5405: Child Development and Parent Education HEEd 5416:
Parent Education: Advanced
In the past decade, many higher education institutions have
offered coursework regarding parenting and parent education. The
above are examples of courses available at the University of
Minnesota. For further information contact CEED at (612)
624-5780.
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Spring 1994